IV. CHEMISTRY TOPICS

1. Inquiry, Reflection, and Social Implications
2. Forms of Energy
3. Energy Transfer and Conservation
4. Properties of Matter
5. Changes in Matter

Additional Sites for Chemistry

1. Teaching Units / Lesson Plans
2. Student Activities / Projects / Interactive Sites
3. Information / Facts / Data / Reports
4. Videos / Movies / Animations
5. Photographs / Slides / Diagrams / Graphics
6. Periodicals / Journals / Newspapers
7. Searches / Explorations / Investigations
8. Physical Science Topics for Teachers

High School

a. P4.p1 Kinetic Molecular Theory (prerequisite)
Properties of solids, liquids, and gases are explained by a model of matter that is composed of tiny particles in motion. (prerequisite)

1. Kinetic Molecular Theory
   Gases are one of the most pervasive aspects of our environment on the Earth. We continually exist with constant exposure to gases of all forms. This site explains how scientists classify gases according to the Kinetic Molecular Theory.
2. Kinetic Molecular Theory
   The Kinetic Molecular Theory explains the forces between molecules and the energy that they possess. This theory has 3 basic assumptions which are discussed at this site.
3. Kinetic Molecular Theory
   The Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases begins with five postulates that describe the behavior of molecules in a gas. This site lists and explains these five postulates.
4. Molecular Motion Tutorial New
   Use an interactive graph to explore the relationship between kinetic energy and temperature. Includes practice exercises.
5. The Kinetic Molecular Theory
   The experimental observations about the behavior of gases discussed so far can be explained with a simple theoretical model known as the kinetic molecular theory. This site explains how the Kinetic Molecular Theory explains the Gas Laws.

b. P4.p2 Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures (prerequisite)
Elements are a class of substances composed of a single kind of atom. Compounds are composed of two or more different elements chemically combined. Mixtures are composed of two or more different elements and/or compounds physically combined. Each element and compound has physical and chemical properties, such as boiling point, density, color, and conductivity, which are independent of the amount of the sample. (prerequisite)

1. Elements, Compounds & Mixtures
   This site has microsopic views that illustrate the differences between elements, compounds and mixtures.
2. Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures
   The site explains in a detailed way the differences and characteristics of elements, compounds, mixtures and much more.
3. Elements, Compounds and Mixtures
   This site explains the differences between pure substances and mixtures and explains how you can identify the differences.
4. Elements, Mixtures and Compounds
   The site shows pictures of some different particle arrangements. Students are asked to choose the correct letters in the boxes on the right. This site tests student's understanding of their differences between elements, mixtures, and compounds.

c. C4.1x Molecular and Empirical Formulae
Compounds have a fixed percent elemental composition. For a compound, the empirical formula can be calculated from the percent composition or the mass of each element. To determine the molecular formula from the empirical formula, the molar mass of the substance must also be known.

1. Determination of Molecular and Empirical Formulas
   Outstanding This site is an interactive slide show with links to many examples of different molecular and empirical formulas. Numerous demonstration are found that relates to the varous topics that are explained.
2. Determining the Empirical Formula from an Elemental Analysis Tutorial New
   This tutorial goes through the process for determining the empirical formula from data obtained through elemental analysis.
3. Example Problems for Calculating Empirical Formulas New
   A compound has the following mass% composition. Determine the empirical formula, enter the values for each element in the appropriate cell and press 'Check Answer.'
4. Example Problems for Calculating Percent Composition New
   Calculate the mass percents for all of the elements and enter them in the cells. Check your answer when done.
5. Finding an Empirical Formula From a Molecular Formula Tutorial New
   This tutorial goes through the process for determining the empirical formula if the molecular formula for a compound is known.
6. Molecular and Empirical Formulas
   The molecular formula shows you how many of each atom can be found in a certain molecule. Some examples of molecular formulas, that you are most likely familiar with are found at this site
7. Molecular and Empirical Formulas
   Electronic encyclopedia entry explains the difference between molecular and empirical formulas.
8. Molecular Formula - Definition
   The conventional form for writing a molecular formula is to write the symbol for each element followed by a subscript indicating the actual number of those atoms present in a molecule. This site defines the difference between a Molecular and Empirical Formula.
9. Percent Composition Tutorial New
   This interactive tutorial covers percent composition and empirical and molecular formulas.

d. C4.2 Nomenclature
All compounds have unique names that are determined systematically.

1. Binary Covalent Nomenclature New
   This site provides a chance for students to put to practice their knowledge of binary covalent nomenclature. The student will be able to convert between formulas to names and names to formulas.
2. Chemical Nomenclature
   The site has a list of tutorials which help students learn the rules in naming various compounds for the chemical formula.
3. Chemical Nomenclature
   Chemists use specific rules and "conventions" to name different compounds. This section is designed to help you review some of those rules and conventions.
4. NOMENCLATURE
   One of the basic, most important tasks that a chemistry student needs to master early on is that of Naming Compounds and Writing Formulas. There are several things that a student can do to make these tasks less tedious.
5. Stock Notation Nomenclature New
   This is a basic exercise in naming simple compounds which contain metals.

e. C4.2x Nomenclature
All molecular and ionic compounds have unique names that are determined systematically.

1. Chemical Nomenclature
   The site has a list of tutorials which help students learn the rules in naming various compounds for the chemical formula.
2. Chemical Nomenclature
   Chemists use specific rules and "conventions" to name different compounds. This section is designed to help you review some of those rules and conventions.
3. Ionic Nomenclature Practice New
   This site provides a chance for students to put to practice their knowledge of ionic nomenclature. The student will be able to convert between formulas to names and names to formulas.
4. NOMENCLATURE
   One of the basic, most important tasks that a chemistry student needs to master early on is that of Naming Compounds and Writing Formulas. There are several things that a student can do to make these tasks less tedious.

f. C4.3 Properties of Substances
Differences in the physical and chemical properties of substances are explained by the arrangement of the atoms, ions, or molecules of the substances and by the strength of the forces of attraction between the atoms, ions, or molecules.

1. The Physical Properties of Molecular Substances
   This page describes how the physical properties of substances having molecular structures varies.
2. Properties of Substances
   Every substance has a characteristic set of properties - chemical and physical - by which it may be identified. The identification of a substance's properties, and the use of properties to characterize a new substance, are a significant part of what chemists and other scientists do.

g. C4.3x Solids
Solids can be classified as metallic, ionic, covalent, or network covalent. These different types of solids have different properties that depend on the particles and forces found in the solid.

1. Crystals and Unit Cell Tutorial New
   Learn to identify the repeating patterns of atoms or ions that are characteristic of crystalline solids and determine the number of atoms in a given unit cell. Includes practice exercises
2. Intermolecular Forces Tutorial New
   Explore the different types of intermolecular forces and explains how these affect the boiling point, melting point, solubility and miscibility of a substance. Includes practice exercises.
3. London Dispersion Force Animation New
   This animation shows how the electron distribution in nonpolar particles can be altered to force an attraction with a nonpolar neighbor particle.
4. Solids
   Solids are particles which are packed orderly. There are 3 main different types of solids.This site explains these three different types.
5. Solids
   The molecules that make up solids are generally held together by ionic or strong covalent bonding, and the attractive forces between the atoms, ions, or molecules in solids are very strong. The four types of crystalline solids are discussed.
6. Solid Basics
   CHEM4KIDS has a section on the nature of solids that explains the different types of chemical structures of solids.

h. C4.4x Molecular Polarity
The forces between molecules depend on the net polarity of the molecule as determined by shape of the molecule and the polarity of the bonds.

1. Bond and Molecular Polarity
   This site has nice animations of how different types of chemical bonds result in different types of polarity for the resulting molecules.
2. Molecular Polarity
   For the most part, there is a direct correlation between the polarity of a molecule and number and types of polar or non-polar covalent bonds which are present. This site compares polar, ionic and non-polar bonding.
3. Partial Charges and Bond Dipoles Tutorial New
   This tutorial explains that covalent bonds often include unequal distribution of electrons leading to partial charges on atoms, bond dipole moments, and molecule polarity. Interactive problem exercises ask you to calculate dipole moments of polar molecule.
4. Predicting Molecular Polarity
   This site explains the general steps the student would use to determine the molecular polarity of a molecule. Numerous examples and solutions are given for various molecules.
5. Vapor Pressure Associated With Weak and Strong IMF New
   This site contains an applet that allows students to investigate vapor pressure (submicroscopically) associated with liquids that have strong and weak intermolecular forces. Temperature can also be changed, allowing the students to relate changes in temperature to resulting changes in vapor pressure.
6. VSEPR Theory Tutorial New
   This unit presents interactive three-dimensional representations of all the molecular geometries, as well as chemical examples of each. . Simply click and drag a molecule to rotate it in space. A complete understanding of molecular shape is necessary in order to determine if a molecule is polar or nonpolar and therefore what type of IMF would hold neighboring molecules together.

i. C4.5x Ideal Gas Law
The forces in gases are explained by the ideal gas law.

1. Example Questions for the Ideal Gas Law New
   The ideal gas equation states : PV=nRT. This page presents problems based upon this equation. When you press "New Problem",a question will appear to the right of the table. Determine the value of the answer, enter it in the cell and press "Check Answer".
2. Ideal Gas Law
   This site from ChemiCool has a formula that can be used to select which variable you want to solve for: Pressure, Volume, Moles, or Temperature.
3. Ideal Gas Law
   An ideal gas can be characterized by three state variables: absolute pressure (P), volume (V), and absolute temperature (T). The relationship between them may be deduced from kinetic theory.
4. Ideal Gas Law Applet New
   This interactive site allows the student to change the number of particles (n), volume (v), and temperature (T) in order to see the resulting changs in pressure.
5. Ideal Gas Law Tutorial New
   Manipulate the variables of the ideal gas law to explore the relationship between the pressure, volume and temperature of a gas. Includes worked examples and interactive practice exercises.

j. C4.6x Moles
The mole is the standard unit for counting atomic and molecular particles in terms of common mass units.

1. Combustion Demonstration for Stoichiometry New
   Outstanding A step-by-step animation showing the reaction of different hydrocarbons with excess oxygen gas. This site can be used at the same time that stoichiometry is being taught to demonstrate the accuracy of the calculations.
2. Comparison of Moles to Mass to Atoms New
   This animation shows the relationship between measurements of matter including moles, mass, and atoms. Four different metals can be used for this comparison.
3. The Mole - Its History and Use
   The site does a nice job of explaining why scientist use the Mole as a standard unit for counting atomic and molecular particles in terms of common mass units.

k. C4.7x Solutions
The physical properties of a solution are determined by the concentration of solute.

1. Colligative Properties of Solutions New
   This interactive site allows students to investigate the difference in the boiling point or freezing point of pure water and a salt solution. Different salts can be chosen, along with different solvents.
2. Saturation Tutorial New
   This tutorial explains the dynamics of saturated solutions.
3. SOLUTIONS
   Everything you need to know about solutions is found at this site. Just click the links and they will answer your questions about the nature of a solution.

l. C4.8 Atomic Structure
Electrons, protons, and neutrons are parts of the atom and have measurable properties, including mass and, in the case of protons and electrons, charge. The nuclei of atoms are composed of protons and neutrons. A kind of force that is only evident at nuclear distances holds the particles of the nucleus together against the electrical repulsion between the protons.

1. Atomic Structure and the Periodic Table
   This site describes the structure of an atom and identifies properties of common families of elements found on the periodic table.
2. BBCi World Service
   This site includes information about elements, atoms and the periodic table.
3. Bohr's Theory of the Hydrogen Atom
   This is an interactive site model of Bohr's atom showing the various energy levels.
4. Build a Carbon Atom New
   This site allows students to make protons and neutrons using quarks, upload these subatomic particles to an atom, and see if the resulting atom is stable. It shows the students that an unequal number of protons and neutrons will lead to radioactive atoms.
5. Chem4kids - Atoms
   This page has links to the atomic structure that has a simple discussion of the sub-atomic particles of an atom, their charges, shells, orbitals, quantum theory and Niels Bohr. Links for "ions" and "compounds" can also be found on their site.
6. General Organic and Biochemistry
   Outstanding - This is a general chemistry site. Links to specific benchmark sites are accessed from this page. Go to the left frame and click on "Atoms & Molecules". This takes you to some slides that discuss the particles of an atom, their charges and mass. There is a summary of the material, a glossary and a practice exam are found at the end of this link.
7. HANGatomMAN!
   Hangman with the elements…The computer will randomly pick the name of an element and provide a clue. Guess letters to find the element name, but be careful! Each incorrect letter you guess causes Atom Man to decay. Find the element's name before the Atom Man decays completely! At the end of the game, learn more about the element and its characteristics.
8. It's Elemental - Element Flash Cards!
   The computer will test your knowledge of the elements and, depending on the selections you make, you will have to supply the element's chemical name (spelled correctly), chemical symbol or atomic number. Would you like to practice only some of the elements? If so, press the 'More options, please!' button and you will be able to select whichever elements you desire to work on!
9. Jefferson Labs - All About Atoms
   Outstanding. What are atoms? (Jefferson Labs). This web site is an interactive on-line slide show presentation regarding the basic structure of the atom. Comparisons between neutrons, protons, and electrons are graphically detailed with brief descriptions and factual data.
10. Fear of Physics - What is an atom?
    This site lets the student look at an atom and describes the nucleus, electron It also allows students to see its orbit.
11. Fermilab
    This site explains and updates the new basic particles of matter and more.
12. Funbrain.com
    A game for students to identify symbols for a given lesser known element.
13. Rutherford's Gold Foil Experiment New
    This applet explains the equipment used in Rutherford's experiment, along with the results of the experiment.
14. Structure of the Atom - Matter & Energy
    This site describes all aspects of the atom. It describes the different atomic theories and shows pictures of atomic obitals for better visualization.
15. The Particle Adventure
    Great site on the history of atomic structure. Includes animations, questions, and quizzes for the student to work on. Very informative.
16. Tom Lehrer's Song of the Elements - Flashimation
    Tom Lehrer's Song of the Elements (music by Sir Arthur Sullivan, words by Dimitri Mendeleyev and friends) put to animation

m. C4.8x Electron Configuration
Electrons are arranged in main energy levels with sublevels that specify particular shapes and geometry. Orbitals represent a region of space in which an electron may be found with a high level of probability. Each defined orbital can hold two electrons, each with a specific spin orientation. The specific assignment of an electron to an orbital is determined by a set of 4 quantum numbers. Each element and, therefore, each position in the periodic table is defined by a unique set of quantum numbers.

1. Applet: Electron Configurations
   Use this applet to explore in which order the atomic shells are filled with electrons.
2. Chem4kids - Atoms
   This page has links to the atomic structure that has a simple discussion of the sub-atomic particles of an atom, their charges, shells, orbitals, quantum theory and Niels Bohr. Links for "ions" and "compounds" can also be found on their site.
3. Comparison of Bohr and Quantum Mechanical Models of the Atom New
   A short animation showing the visual difference between the Bohr model of the atom and the Quantum Mechanical model of the atom. This can be used to explain that an electron's position cannot be pinpointed.
4. Electron Configuration
   The electron configuration of an atom is a form of notation which shows how the electrons are distributed among the various atomic orbital and energy levels.This site gives examples of how to write the electron configuration of varous atoms.
5. Electronic Structure of Atoms
   Each electron in an atom is described by four different quantum numbers. Three of these quantum numbers (n, l, and m) represent the three dimensions to space in which an electron could be found.
6. Example Questions About Quantum Numbers and Orbitals New
   This is an exercise in using using and understanding the quantum numbers. When you press "New Question", a question will appear in the top frame. Determine the value of the answer, enter it in the cell and press "Check Answer." Results appear in the second table.
7. Orbital Diagrams New
   This site shows students the electrons as they fit into orbitals. It also sorts the orbitals in order of energy (Aufbau Principle).
8. Orbital Diagrams New
   This site allows students to click on different elements on the periodic table in order to visualize the electron's location within specific orbitals.
9. Orbital Simulation Applet New
   This site shows the different shapes of orbitals in the hydrogen atom. It allows the student to chose the first two quantum numbers corresponding to specific orbitals to view the shapes.
10. Practicing Electron Configurations New
    This site offers the students the chance to practice their skills at writing out electron configurations for different elements.
11. Quantum Numbers Tutorial New
    This interactive tutorial explains the concept of quantum numbers. This concept can be used to reinforce student understanding of orbitals, electron movement, and electron location.

n. C4.9 Periodic Table
In the periodic table, elements are arranged in order of increasing number of protons (called the atomic number). Vertical groups in the periodic table (families) have similar physical and chemical properties due to the same outer electron structures.

1. Atomic Structure and the Periodic Table
   Outstanding - This site describes the structure of an atom and identifies properties of common families of elements found on the periodic table.
2. Chemsoc
   A stunning visual representation of the periodic table - who knew that chemistry could look so good?
3. Chem4kids - Elements
   A discussion of the periodic table with a hyperlink to the periodic table section that discusses what the "rows" or periods and "columns" or groups are. The first three rows of the periodic table, on this page, can be clicked on to find out more information about the element.
4. General, Organic and Biochemistry
   This is a general chemistry site. Links to specific benchmark sites are accessed from this page. Go to the left frame and click on "Periodic Properties". This takes you to some slides that discuss the families and periods of the table. It also discusses metals, non-metals and semi-conductors. There is a summary of the material, a glossary and a practice exam found at the end of this link.
5. It's Elemental - Element Math Game!
   The computer will randomly pick an element and present you with that element's data from the Periodic Table of Elements. Use that information to answer the question that the computer asks about the number of protons, neutrons, electrons or nucleons (particles in the nucleus) that an atom of that element contains.
6. Periodic Table Applet New
   An applet that contains multiple periodic tables, each color-coded to represent different ways in which the periodic table is organized.
7. Periodic Table of Elements - Crystal Structures
   This site sorts the elements of the Periodic Table by their crystal structures.  Each element has information in the following categories: atomic structure, chemical and physical properties, and discovery.  There are also links to a dictionary for better understanding of terms.
8. Periodic Properties of Elements
   Outstanding Excellent site that shows your students how elements have recurring patterns. Moving on through the tutorial will give them chances to find out why, by looking at atomic structure as well as an interactive Perioic Table.
9. Periodic Table of the Elements
   Interactive Periodic Table complete with pictures, descriptions, sources, compounds, uses, forms and isotopes for each element.
10. Thinkwell Interactive Periodic Table
    Interactive Periodic Table that allows one to manipulate the colorcoding of the table according to metal/nonmetal, electron configeration, and standard state. Also shows trends in atomic radius, ionic radius and electronegativity. Contains a formula calculator and a "test yourself" section that you can interact with.
11. Visual Elements Periodic Table
    Site can be viewed using flash or html. Periodic table is interactive with pictures and movies of 109 elements. Lots of traditional information, but cool stuff too!
12. Web Elements
    Good periodic table site. Atomic number and mass are identified on the table. Students can click any element and read comprehensive description of th element. Description includes physical properties, uses, abundance in nature, etc.  

o. C4.9x Electron Energy Levels
The rows in the periodic table represent the main electron energy levels of the atom. Within each main energy level are sublevels that represent an orbital shape and orientation.

1. Doc Brown's Chemistry Clinic
   GCSE notes on Atomic Structure, Isotopes, Periodic Table and Electronic Structure of Atoms are found at this site.
2. Energy Levels
   Lively applets animate Bohr's atom and lead to the modern idea of the energy level atom.
3. How do I read an electron configuration table?
   An electron configuration table is a type of code that describes how many electrons are in each energy level of an atom and how the electrons are arranged within each energy level.
4. How many electrons fit in each shell around an atom?
   The maximum number of electrons that can occupy a specific energy level can be found using the following formula: Electron Capacity = 2n2
5. Periodic Table Trends Tutorial New
   This tutorial offers a guided tour of the trends summarized by the periodic table (metallic properties, subshells, electronegativity and atomic radius), and explains how to use this tool to predict an element's characteristics, including its bonding capacity. An interactive version of the periodic table is accessible from every tutorial.

p. C4.10 Neutral Atoms, Ions, and Isotopes
A neutral atom of any element will contain the same number of protons and electrons. Ions are charged particles with an unequal number of protons and electrons. Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons and essentially the same chemical and physical properties.

1. Average Atomic Mass Worksheet New
   This site contains a worksheet for use in the classroom to calculate average atomic mass. The worksheet shows, step-by-step, how to calculate average atomic mass, and then provides many example problems for the students to complete.
2. Calculating Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons of Ions, Isotopes, and Neutral Atoms
   This site has a nice table that takes a number of common elements and shows how the number of protons, neutrons and electrons determine if an element is neutral atom, or an Ion or Isotope.
3. Ions, Isotopes and Electron Shells
   Normally, atoms contain equal numbers of protons and electrons. Because the positive and negative charges cancel each other out, atoms are normally electrically neutral. When the number of electrons changes in an atom, the electrical charge changes. This site explains the nature of Ions, and Isotopes.
4. Number of Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons New
   This page is an exercise in relating the number of protons, electrons and neutrons for an atom or monoatomic ion. When you press "New Problem", an atomic symbol will appear in the first cell and several other cells will have values. Fill in the empty cells (all of the values are integers) and press "Check Ans." Results appear in the smaller table. You need a periodic table or a list of the elements to use this page. If the charge is positive, just enter the integer. If it's negative make sure you include the sign.

q. C4.10x Average Atomic Mass
The atomic mass listed on the periodic table is an average mass for all the different isotopes that exist, taking into account the percent and mass of each different isotope.

1. Average Atomic Mass Calculation Tutorial New
   This short tutorial gives the process for solving for the average atomic mass of multiple isotopes, given their abundances.
2. Chemistry: Average Atomic Mass
   To find the AVERAGE ATOMIC MASS of an atom, we take into account all of the isotopes that exist and the percentage of each type. The calculation of the average atomic mass is a WEIGHTED AVERAGE. This site gives examples of how to determine the average atomic mass of various atoms.
3. How to Calculate an Average Atomic Weight
   This site gives problems for student to solve in determining the average atomic weight of carbon, nitrogen, chlorine and silicon. In addition, a number of additional sample problems is provided.
4. Rutherford's Gold Foil Experiment
   Interactive applet to show the basic principle of the discovery of the nucleus by Rutherford's gold foil experiement. It also helps imply the relative masses in the atom, even though the scale is poorly illustrated.